Coral reef monitoring (CRM) in Tanzania started in the late 1980s. The main objective was to assess the extent of damage caused by the use of destructive resource harvesting practices, mainly dynamite and drag-nets. The derived information formed the basis for setting up of legislation (control) measures and monitoring of further changes on reef health. Coral reef monitoring has contributed substantial descriptive information and has raised awareness of coastal communities and managers. Analysis of CRM data over the years has provided information on the dynamics of reef health, for example coral cover and composition, and fish and macro-invertebrate abundances. Experience has shown that there are more factors that degrade coral reef now than before. The contribution of natural factors (e.g., coral bleaching events, algal and   orallimorpharia proliferation, crown-of-thorns predation) has become more apparent and these factors are acting synergistically with chronic human induced factors such as destructive resource harvesting practices (dynamite and dragnets), mining of live corals, trampling and anchor damage. In order to keep pace with increased reef problems, the Institute of Marine Sciences, Zanzibar, has modified its monitoring protocols. The main emphasis is now on biodiversity changes. Reef corals are now monitored at genus level instead of growth forms alone. Reef macro-invertebrates (sea urchins, sea cucumbers, gastropods) include more sub-groups than before. Coral recruitment (young corals less than 10 cm diameter) is now monitored at genus level. Analysis of the coral monitoring data takes into consideration resilience concepts such as functional redundancy. The improved coral reef monitoring approach will complement community-based monitoring which is being practiced countrywide in Tanzania. This paper discusses critical issues in the past coral reef monitoring program and describes modifications adopted by the Institute of Marine Sciences. Complementarities with community-based coral reef monitoring are also discussed.

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Studies of reef fish spawning aggregations are new to the Western Indian Ocean compared to other regions. This paper reviews the current state of knowledge of spawning aggregations in the region and assesses their implications for fisheries management and conservation. Fisher knowledge has identified more than 30 species of reef fish that aggregate to spawn, mainly belonging to the families Lutjanidae, Serranidae, Lethrinidae and Siganidae. Verification has been achieved for 25 spawning aggregations from 7 species, including five and six aggregations of Epinephelus fuscoguttatus and Siganus sutor, respectively. Reef fishes commonly spawn within the northeast (November-April) and inter-tropical monsoon periods. Serranid aggregation sites include reef passes, channels, reef slopes and pinnacles, while Siganus sutor spawns on patch reefs and granitic reefs. The status of spawning aggregations is poorly known and evidence of aggregation collapses are currently confined to Seychelles. Few spawning aggregations are protected in the region and their applicability to new approaches of managing for resilience will not be realised without considerable efforts in research and advocacy. The  management of spawning aggregations through marine protected areas does not constitute a solution for fisheries management and must be viewed as complementary to tools such as catch and effort controls.

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Scleractinian coral species surveys were conducted at 10 sites in the western Indian Ocean, between 2002 and 2006. Each site varied from approximately 50-200 km in extent and was sampled with from 7 to 27 dives. Accumulation curves based on successive samples at each site were used to construct logarithmic regression curves, which provide estimated species numbers at each site at an arbitrary value of 30 samples per site, assumed to reflect the total number of species. The highest diversity of corals was found in southern Tanzania to northern Mozambique (from Mafia Island to Pemba town), with 280-320 species estimated per site. Species diversity was lower in the central Indian Ocean islands (140-240 species) and declined steadily to a minimum in northern Kenya (150 species). These patterns are consistent with the central coast (around 10oS in  Tanzania/Mozambique) accumulating and retaining species due to the South Equatorial Current (SEC) and mixing/reversing currents locally, respectively. The islands may have restricted diversity due to low area but nevertheless be stepping stones to the East African mainland coast. Lower diversity northwards into Kenya may reflect distance and low dispersal from the center of diversity at 10oS, and poorer conditions due to the Somali Current influence in the north. Observer effects and unclear taxonomy of scleractinian corals may significantly affect the dataset, as may faunal changes due to bleaching or other impacts at individual sites during the course of the study. Finally, it is likely that the diversity gradient northwards into Kenya is replicated southwards into southern Mozambique and South Africa, providing a means to test latitudinal changes in diversity and species distributions.

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The assessments of 50 contributing authors focusing on coral reefs and related coastal ecosystems, and dependent communities in 9 countries in South Asia and the central and western Indian Ocean report that:Status of Coral Reefs

● The bio-physical condition of many reefs continues to decline. ● Recovery from bleaching associated coral mortality is generally slow and patchy with widespread changes in species composition of adult and juvenile coral communities. ● Recovery is more rapid on reefs that are situated within managed areas or are remote from the influence of other human disturbances. ● Recovery in areas subject to human influences has been retarded. ● The primary causes of coral reef degradation are: ❏ Bleaching, which is occuring more frequently and has accelerated the degradation caused by: ❏ Overexploitation of fish and of other organisms on reefs throughout the region; ❏ Destructive fishing, which become an increasing problem as fish stocks decline; due to lack of enforcement destructive fishing has destroyed reefs in formally protected areas (MPA’s) during the last couple of years; ❏ Pollution and sedimentation, mainly from landbased human activities. ● The impacts of the tsunami of 26th December 2004 on coral reefs was highly variable and ranged from negligible (Gulf of Mannar, India, Maldives, East Africa) to moderate (parts of Andaman and Nicobar Islands) to extreme (parts of Sri Lanka, Nicobar Islands). ● The primary factors determining the severity of damage caused by the tsunami were: ❏ How exposed a reef was to the direct force of the wave; ❏ The local bathymetry surrounding a reef; ❏ The geological composition of a reef; ❏ The condition of the reef; reefs that had sufferred extensive coral mortality as a result of the 998 El Niño were more vulnerable to the force of the tsunami. ● The reasons for continued coral reef degradation are: ❏ High dependence on coral reef resources as a result of few alternative sources of food and income; ❏ Open access; fishing and exploitation of other coastal resources are unregulated in many countries; as a result, unemployment and a lack of opportunities elsewhere in society are directly linked with coastal degradation; ❏ Low awareness of the importance of healthy coastal ecosystems and the impacts of human activities; ❏ Inadequate laws and regulations; ❏ Poor enforcement of existing laws and regulations;

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In southern Africa, coral communities form a continuum from the more typical, accretive reefs in the tropics of Mozambique to the marginal, southernmost African distribution of this fauna in KwaZulu-Natal (figure 1). Over  the last 15 years, the Oceanographic Research Institute (ORI) has collected, analysed and published information on several aspects of the coral reefs in the region. These have included studies on coral taxonomy as well as the ecology and the condition of the reefs, contributing to an understanding of coral community development at high latitude.

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Coral settlement patterns were measured at two sites in the Mombasa Marine National Park for a 2-year period from May 2001 to February 2003. Artificial settlement tiles were deployed for approximately 3-month periods and were collected in February, May, August and November of each year. The mean number of coral spat settled on collected tiles varied from 0.75 (± 0.79 s.d.) per tile in August 2001 to a maximum of 16.70 (± 7.53 s.d.) in November 2002, corresponding to mean densities of 8–740 m–2. The maximum number of spat recorded on a single tile was 38 (November 2002). Although peak settlement rates were recorded in November of each year, settlement was sufficiently variable between months and years to obscure a clear seasonal cycle. Settlement was highest at the study site with the best water flow and exchange with the open ocean. Pocilloporids  Pocillopora spp.) dominated settlement (76%), followed by poritids (19%), then ‘others’. Patterns suggest peak coral recruitment in September– November each year when water temperatures are increasing the fastest prior to reaching their seasonal maxima in March–April, but with substantial recruitment of pocilloporids and poritids throughout the year.

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Coral reefs are often referred to as the rainforests of the sea, with amazing beauty and incredible biodiversity. They are also the life support system for millions of coastal inhabitants who derive their livelihoods from them and benefit from the multiple services that reefs provide, such as shoreline protection, nutrient cycling, recreation, tourism and fisheries. Increased pressures on reefs brought about by demographic growth in the coastal zone, expanding tourism, changes in agricultural practices, destructive fishing and the influence of climate change all contribute to threaten the coral reefs. During the period February to June 1998, a significant rise in the surface water temperature in the Indian Ocean and elsewhere was observed. This temperature anomaly, reported to be around 4-6 degrees above normal over an extended period of time, resulted in extensive coral bleaching and widespread mortality. Hard hit were large areas of coral reef, from Sri Lanka and the Maldives in South Asia to the East African coastal line stretching from Kenya and Tanzania to Madagascar and the Seychelles. Such widespread bleaching has not been observed in recorded history. In certain areas, such as around the central granite islands of the Seychelles, only a few percent of the reefs are reported to have survived. The start of bleaching in February 1998 coincided with a large El Niño event, and bleaching stopped just as the Asia-Pacific climate switched over to a strong La Niña in June. The massive coral bleaching and mortality of 1998 should be considered against the backdrop of decades of rapidly deteriorating coral reefs all over the world, mainly due to human activities. What was alarming about the 1998 bleaching event, was the widespread occurrence and that many reefs previously regarded as near-pristine were seriously affected. The bleaching and subsequent mortality may result in serious socio-economic impacts, particularly for those nations whose economies are heavily dependent on the revenues generated by reef-based tourism and reef-based fisheries. The situation raises several important questions such as: (a) whether the bleaching event is merely a one time occurrence, or whether such phenomena will be more frequent as the world’s atmosphere and waters warm up; (b) Is there evidence that the reefs may recover? If so, what is the rate of recovery and what, if any, measures can be put in place to enhance recovery; and (c) socio-economic implications and the definition of remedial measures for mitigation of these impacts.

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Surveys of reef benthos and hard coral recruits were carried out between February and March 2006 at 19 reef sites in 5 atolls of the archipelago. Results showed that all atolls appear to have shown strong recovery in terms of benthic cover after the 1998 bleaching and mortality event. Reef benthos composition varied greatly between survey sites, and highly significant differences in reef composition were recorded between different atolls, and between different depths at all atolls, showing considerable unevenness in recovery. New coral recruitment is also strong, such that even the lowest of the Chagos recruit densities are an order of magnitude higher than the rates of recruitment of new corals documented at reefs in South Asia, the central Indian Ocean, and the East African Coast. Chagos recruitment is 6 m-2 to 28 m-2 compared to other reported values of 0.4-0.6 recruits m-2 elsewhere. Despite observations of several subsequent shallow water bleaching events including a substantial, recent localised coral mortality at Egmont atoll within the previous year, evidence of archipelago-wide recovery of reef habitats as notable as this remains unrecorded elsewhere in the Indian Ocean. Significant gaps remain in current understanding of the number and scale of bleaching episodes that have taken place since the 1998 mass mortality event. Given the critical biogeographical role of Chagos in the Indian Ocean marine ecosystem, and the importance of the archipelago as a reference site for studying environmental change in the absence of direct anthropogenic interference, greater levels of long-term monitoring and ecological research are needed to better understand the responses and trajectory of recovery of the region’s coral reef communities.

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Mohéli Marine Park (Parc Marin de Mohéli, PMM) was the first Marine Protected Area (MPA) to be established in the Comoros in 2001. Initially regarded as a model for co-management of marine resources, PMM is now operating at a vastly reduced capacity following an end to external funding sources. An assessment of current perceptions of local stakeholders of PMM was recognized as an essential first step in rebuilding its capacity and effectiveness as an MPA. This study aimed to ascertain stakeholders’ current perceptions of PMM, using focus group interviews to evaluate six key parameters: (1) basic awareness, (2) value, (3) effectiveness, (4)  environmental threats and solutions, (5) stakeholder roles and responsibilities and (6) future aspirations and expectations. It was apparent that most local communities were aware of the importance of PMM, but felt that it had failed to include their needs or consider their input in its management. Concern was expressed for the lack of sustainability or alternative livelihoods; inequitable distribution of benefits; exclusion of women; continuing environmental threats and a concurrent lack of enforcement of regulations. The key recommendations to arise from this work were: (1) ensure sustainability through effective financial planning and promotion of low-cost, appropriate management techniques; (2) mobilize local communities to create a truly co-managed PMM; (3) ensure tangible benefits to local communities through realistic alternative livelihood options, particularly for fishers; (4) ensure equitable sharing of benefits and awareness of PMM; (5) involve women in the management of PMM, they are the primary local educators and motivators for future generations; (6)inform law enforcement officials and members of the justice system to ensure understanding, respect and enforcement of PMM regulations.

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Increased research has been focused in recent decades on the sustainability of marine resource use in East Africa. Resources shared by neighbouring countries have, in particular, become a subject of concern. With  his in mind, marine scientists successfully submitted a proposal to gather scientific information needed for the creation of an effective trans-boundary network of marine protected areas (MPAs) in the East African region. This EU-funded project, known as Transmap, is being conducted by an international consortium in the trans-boundary regions of Tanzania, Mozambique and South Africa. The study area thus covers Mnazi Bay and the Rovuma estuary in Tanzania, the Quirimbas group of coral islands and the Machangulo Peninsula and Inhaca Island in Mozambique, and the Greater St Lucia Wetland Park in South Africa. While coastal and marine habitats straddling the borders of these countries are the subject of attention, it is expected that principles emanating from the research will find application elsewhere in the western Indian Ocean (WIO). Five European and five African institutions are involved, each contributing their expertise to the collective goal of generating scientific knowledge to underpin transfrontier MPAs. The project’s overall goal is to establish the type, size and location of reserves needed to maintain ecological function in the trans-frontier coastal environment while creating opportunities for sustainable resource-use and associated socio-economic development. This will be achieved through integration and modelling of a range of strategic issues, including biophysical, socio-economic and governance parameters. All the information is being compiled in a Global Information System (GIS) which will provide the basis for future MPA decision-support and zonation. An understanding of biotic connectivity within and between the different coastal habitats is clearly needed to meet the project goals and is being approached in a number of ways. Coral reefs have received particular attention in East Africa over the last decade in view of the severe consequences of the 1998 El Niño Southern Oscillation and associated coral bleaching. Reef connectivity is thus being determined through appropriate genetic studies of a number of corals. Mark-recapture techniques are being used to establish fish movement amongst inshore angling fish as well as selected species on reefs subjected to and closed to fishing. Connectivity between other habitats, viz. rocky and sandy shores, mangroves and seagrass beds, is being assessed through measurement of morphometric variations between populations of selected species, the differences being confirmed in genetic studies to exclude those due to environmental adaptation. Trophic linkages within and between these environments is being determined through stable isotope studies. An overview of these approaches is presented here with an outline of the direction that the results are taking.

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The scleractinian coral fauna of the East African mainland coast has had little formal systematic study. H.J.  Hamilton, at the University of Dar es Salaam in the 1970s completed a Masters degree focusing on the coral fauna of Dar es Salaam and nearby areas of Tanzania and Kenya (Hamilton 1975, Hamilton and Brakel 1984). Since then, field surveys for coral diversity have been conducted at many sites but until high quality in situ  identification resources with global coverage were released after the turn of this century (Veron 2000, Wallace  2001), species identification was severely hampered. In a regional compilation, Sheppard (2002) reported from the literature coral species numbers of 112 for Kenya and Tanzania combined, compared to recorded numbers of 270+ and predicted numbers over 300 (see Obura, 2007). As a result of this under-representation, the East African coast has featured as a lower-diversity subregion within the overall Indo-Pacific province

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East Africa coral reefs continue to recover slowly from the ENSO- induced coral bleaching and mortality of 1998. However, fastest recovery has been recorded in reefs previously degraded from other threats such as fishing, and slowest in protected areas and slowest in protected areas and on reefs that were less degraded before 1998.

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This is the fifth in the series of CORDIO Status Reports, following reports in 1999, 2000, 2002 and 2005. This publication reflects the evolution of the CORDIO programme in response to progressing threats from climate change as well as human activities. In all, the report includes 48 articles in sections covering overviews and regional summaries; reports on status, tsunami impact, biological research, fish spawning aggregations, artisanal fisheries, socioeconomics and livelihoods, and education and awareness.

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Climate change will inevitably continue to cause degradation of coral reefs over coming decades (Hughes et al. 2003). The amount of damage depends on not only the rate and extent of change, but also on the ability of coral reefs to cope with change. Many MPA managers are asking, “What can we do about a large-scale issue such as climate change?” Resilience is the ability of a system to absorb or recover from disturbance while maintaining its functions and services. Natural coral reef resilience is being undermined by anthropogenic stresses such as degraded water quality, unsustainable and destructive fishing, and coastal development. These local pressures act in synergy with climate change to functionally reduce the resilience of the system, undermining its ability to cope with climate change. It becomes critical then for scientists and managers to determine the range of threats affecting the ecosystem to manage its ability to cope with climate change. While science has clearly documented the effects of climate change on coral reefs, climate-conscious strategies for managing them are only just emerging (Marshall and Schuttenberg 2006). At the MPA scale, the primary approach is to reduce other stressors  and to boost the resilience of the reef. Resilience assessments provide a comprehensive overview of threats, as well as of the state of the system. With this information in hand, a manager can make sound decisions. For example, fishing may be closed for different herbivorous fish groups during or after a bleaching event to minimize algal competition with recovering corals. Or the manager may press for more stringent control of pollution or runoff to minimize stress to corals during bleaching events. Conducting resilience surveys before an MPA is zoned can also help identify critical sites and refugia from different threats. The IUCN Climate Change and Coral Reefs Working Group (CCCR) was created with support from the MacArthur Foundation to bring  together leading coral reef practitioners to expedite the development of management tools and strategies that boost coral reef resilience. This paper outlines the methodology developed by the CCCR for assessing the

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In response to the recent decline in fish stocks in Rodrigues, 4 marine reserves were proclaimed in the northern lagoon in April 2007. Although biological monitoring has been on-going since 2002, there was an urgent need for socio-economic monitoring to be carried out to complement this research. The main objectives of this study were therefore to formalise and add to existing knowledge on fisheries and fishers attitudes and to establish baselines for future monitoring and evaluation. SocMon surveys were undertaken at the village of Rivière Banane, in the north-east of Rodrigues, during May – July 2006 and February 2007 using a combination of household surveys, key informant and focus group interviews.

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South Africa’s East Coast subtropical reefs are nodes of biodiversity that are subjected to extractive and non-extractive recreational use. Coral reefs comprise a third of these and lie principally within the Greater St Lucia Wetland Park (GSLWP), a World Heritage Site of great value and importance. Research on the East Coast reef resources has advanced to a point where modelling reef habitat, processes such as accretion vs bio-erosion and connectivity has become possible within the context of climatic and environmental change. A five-year research programme has thus been initiated that will supplement earlier reef studies, making them more cohesive. The results will be integrated with earlier findings to elucidate reef processes, latitudinal gradients in coral population genetics, zooxanthellar cladal resilience to coral bleaching, the usefulness of indicators of reef health and aspects of reef modelling.

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